Medicine, black magic and supernatural beings: Cultural rituals as a significant threat to slender lorises in India

Habitat loss and anthropogenic pressures, coupled with the existing slender loris trade for cultural practices, are a cause grave concern. Numerous deep-rooted superstitious beliefs rituals continue to thrive in modern India, this is potentially one of major threats India's already imperilled population. More research into prevalence use black magic needed assess impact on species sustainability. Read free Plain Language Summary article Journal blog. சுருக்கம் ಅಮೂರ್ತ The wild animals consists selling live animals, their body parts, derivatives and/or products, affects vast number globally (Fukushima et al., 2020; Nijman, 2010; Robinson & Sinovas, 2018; Scheffers 2020). This poses significant threat biodiversity through population declines, as well acting channel invasive introduction spreading disease (Wyatt, 2013). Conservationists increasingly aware need demand-side interventions that target end consumers (Verissimo Veríssimo Wan, 2018). Understanding underlying motivations drive uses specific products including wildlife parts societal contexts which they consumed, can create more effective behaviour change (Davis Michie 2011). Traditional medicine defined ‘the sum total knowledge, skills, practices based theories, beliefs, experiences indigenous different cultures, whether explicable or not, used maintenance health prevention, diagnosis, improvement treatment physical mental illness’ (WHO, scientific have been often contrasted, it has found not all traditional medicines proven effects. broad term referring being by communities, may effects such Chinese Medicine, Indian Ayurveda, Siddha Arabic Unani medicine, various forms (Gesler, 1992; Good, 1980; Thass, 2008; WHO, 2002). therapies include medication therapies, e.g. using whole plants, minerals (Alves 2010), non-medication acupuncture, manual spiritual therapies. In Cambodia, non-accessibility high cost drugs resistance several common diseases caused advocacy provide platform synergy between (Fokunang A less explored links worldwide practice ritual, purposes, offerings, amulets, ablutions, aspects animal taking profound symbolism (Ahmed, Ahmed, 2012; Alves Dissa 2017; Jensen, 2009). These terms complex, definitions context-specific, but here we define superstitions belief supernatural elements - event leads another without any process linking two events’. includes astrology, presage, witchcraft (Dissa 2017). For magic, follow Versnel (2016)'s definition ‘manipulative strategy influence nature means’. Black traditionally referred powers evil selfish purposes (Melton, 2001). impacts conservation be overlooked, especially among charismatic (Chawla how these also aid intervention strategies (Jugli India megadiverse nation harbouring four hotspots, where long played an intrinsic role religious life (Lee 2014). Most festivals sophisticated calendar solar, lunar star positions sacrifices pertaining scheduled (Fuller, 2004). example, ‘Navratri’ celebrated first nine days (tithi) bright fortnight (i.e. ending full moon) month āśvina. festival ‘Durga pooja’ western Dasara Karnataka, Vijayadashami Kerala. goddess ‘Durga’ ‘Kali’ offered sacrificial ritual stimulates her violent vengeance against buffalo demon suggested negative impact. during Diwali festival, observed Amavasya (new when Lakshmi worshipped, families sacrifice owl house, forcing wealth, Lakshmi, stay them (Padhy, 2016). An increased owls linked (TRAFFIC, some states, traditions encourage people poach tiger (or leopards substitutes) acquire paw right leg, gain fortune from ‘god’ (Niraj 2019). species, vulnerable primate eastern hoolock Hoolock leuconedys clouded leopard Neofelis nebulosa harming others, prevent bad omens telling fortunes Golden jackals Canis aureus poached ‘jackal horns’, bony cone-shaped excrescence occasionally grow jackal's skulls, sought astrologers practitioners groups across country Over time, harvest could lead decline, over-harvest requires research. overlap. case point small (105–320 g) nocturnal primate, Loris spp. endemic southern Sri Lanka (Nekaris 2010). Slender lorises frequently along forest edges plantations close human habitation even urban suburban areas (Kumara 2006; Nekaris Jayewardene, 2003). lorises' habitats fragmented many fall outside protected areas, making easy catch Sasi Kumara, ecology poorly known. Unlike other slow moving mammals, Nycticebus spp., pottos Perodicticus sloths (Bradypus spp.) cuscus Spilocuscus non-target hunted at time due ease catching Latinis, 1996; Starr Svensson Friant, 2014), specifically targeted, primarily folk (Dittus Radhakrishna Singh, 2002; Situge, Lanka, eyes tears purported cure eye love potion see deity, whereas eating flesh considered leprosy Tamil Nadu, addition same regarding eyes, treat variety illnesses potions (Kanagavel perceived harbingers misfortune killed sight 2013; Kumara instrument tellers. Carried box cage, asked choose cards deck, length string, tasks 2001; Quantitative records limited; examining data CITES Trade Database 1978–2020, al. (2010, 2021, unpublished data) 95 exported Thailand Lao PDR. Two-thirds were born captivity. Inaccuracies identification confusion taxonomic result lack reporting traded internationally (Groves, Starr, 2015; Nijman lorises, however, occurs within countries while there no accurate transactions, information newspapers online adverts give insights Morgan 2015, (2020) examined posts popular web site, sold requested ‘rice pullers’, objects properties. They 156 buyers seeking 94 sellers; most offers sale came Maharashtra, Nadu Karnataka featuring states potential based. seasonal variation (Morgan Schedule I, Part I Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 affords highest protection national level. specifically, hunting, sale, transfer possession (dead alive) prior permission Government violation law under (Act No. 53 1972, enacted Parliament dated 9 September 1972). Internationally, included Appendix II, strictly regulates international authorized permit re-export certificate listed Near Threatened International Union Conservation Nature (IUCN) Red List Despite strict laws, still prevalent additional measures curb them. held importance present tales Parmbu Pachchai regions since 300 BCE, revered spirit Goddess. given offerings mark beginnings holy (Venkatesan, During Pandya dynasty 1200–1300 exploitation began aboard ships living compasses Although clear hold locally around habitats, details about lacking. last 20 years, rescue centres received rescued after rituals. We thus detailing practices. investigate cases rescues, demand rises moon phase cycle, preference sex At participant observation formal informal interviews six years field work three understand context rituals, medicine. describe results relation conservationists remain vigilant posed magic. collected Mysore (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus) Malabar malabaricus) loris, occur Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala South 2006). brought rehabilitation anonymous government organization (2002–2020). Bengaluru, India: People Animals (PFA; 2014–2020), Rescue Rehabilitation Centre (WRRC; 2009–2020), Avian Reptile (ARRC; 2006–2020). included: date rescue; animal's sex; weight medical history loris; photographs videos available. All sites only kept alive admission. Thus, do dead process, meaning numbers much higher. Android Application Phases Moon Version 6.1.9., created M2Catalyst, LLC images NASA/Goddard Space Flight Scientific Visualization Studio Published LLC. Data paper will available author request. From 2014 she was conducting ecological studies 12 Kerala, Southern (Figure 1, Table 1). As had spent considerable amount (5 2.5 2 few projects having overlapping timelines) local developed friendly relationship both inhabitants officials. She method stage project each site identify approach select questions ask (DeWalt DeWalt, Kawulich, 2005). After period, communities willing voluntarily author. open-ended 193 informants, whom directly approached, approached her, officials, villagers allowing collect folklore, (Bernard, 1994, Because read write, otherwise would previous experience consent form, verbal discussions interviews. interviews, followed set (Supplementary Material S1). made continuous notes notebook sheets. then digitalised onto Excel sheet coded emerged (traditional non-black magic), part used, reason ritual. codes collated 2. discussion participants, snowball sampling meet further 100 informants contacting telephone, met person information. provided 1. Interviews lasted 10 min 1 h depending provided. Additionally, contacted who reasons conduct. Our corresponds non-probability convenience (Newing None our members gypsy community, partial, stems interpretation non-gypsy contrasted verified direct input communities. collection done accredited veterinarians Centres. ethical guidelines proposed Association Social Anthropologists UK Commonwealth (ASA Ethical Guidelines 2011. https://www.theasa.org). Prior participants informed participation totally voluntary anonymous. remained confidential withdraw conversation; reiterated completion. took approval interview study. obtaining permits Forest Department India; dates acknowledgements. addition, gained relevant departments access villages; 45% interviewed front official. It possible hesitated complete presence official, hence, severity than what report study (St John 2015). Since think official did bias discussing issues law. illegal activities might reduced. generalized additive model (GAM) test influenced periods performed centres. analysis, reports indicating new signs aberrations, confirmed likely rescuers veterinary doctor. carried out statistical analysis R v 4.0.3. entirely restricted maximum likelihood (REML) selection via gamm command package mgcv (Wood, REML preferred over sample sizes reduces estimation variance components manually selected cyclic cubic regression splines consider circularity variable fit dependent presenting fresh wounds rituals) quasi-Poisson distribution, distribution gave best residual plots GAM flexible because assume linear parametric form priori reveal estimate non-linear covariate values smooth ±95% confidence interval higher lower reference value crossing line). ran (GLM) Binomial family if female male compared cases. this, 0 trafficking purposes. vegan (Dixon, recorded 179 139 registered related (L. l. 58 classified connected 21 displaced lorises. find pet areas. Bengaluru steadily 2002 2020, peaks 2). detected monthly May, June 3). 30 reported detect estimated recent old. cases, multiple individual. identified five mechanisms inflict body—burning (11 wounds), hitting (4), piercing (49), breaking (12) cutting (2) 4). Wounds occurred (mouth, head, limbs, spine, anus) internal organs (heart, kidney). wound forelimb arm. link period (GAM, intercept = −0.22 ± 0.18, edf 4.90, F 2.74, p 0.004), explains 53.7% variance. perform proximity nights (Amavasya) waning crescent moon's 5). Female 33% probability involved males [GLM, 0.75 0.43, sex(males) −1.36 0.66, Z −2.05, 0.040] 6). able characterize people's categories: (Table conditions eyesight, heal joint pain leprosy. Superstitions carry dark magical powers. references warding off evil. urine shown Tears added kajal kohl (a paste applied eyes), worn, wearer hypnotism. Non-black largely ward evil, exception keeping bones, Qualitative examples highlighted Apart informers 2, instances us individuals Travelling tribes boxes gypsies paid ailments. While tied rod whipped, calls passers-by. action believed rid placed peoples' shoulders heads circled effect. sometimes forced lick person's afflicted take upon itself way. Similarly, circling head prematurely child, child look loris' face, render sell home; seeing thing morning remove luck. One astrologer informant revealed pulling teeth nail cutters aids handling, avoid bitten. According astrologer, anything fill gap teeth. advantage fortune-telling, coloured threads (black, red, green yellow) chooses one. quickly pick up thread put its mouth Later, customer Once practitioner brings back home, he ties rope waist, left tree fend itself. ropes cuts infection. occurring caught male, probably enlarged penis-like clitoris females. Practitioners discuss reason, choosing another. reuse believe should die omen. Hence, intense verge dying, dispose beside road known habitat. Disposing helps legal risks ownership injured animals. show regularly trafficked medicinal captivity, threatening wounds. authors extensively pets Singh 2000), evidence trade, least area. price estimates study, though e-commerce (https://rice-puller.com), suggests US$25 US$2500 per 2020) requirement location buyer, substantial income sellers. majority emphasizing incredible qualities. findings extend creatures associated root perceptions clearly understood. recommend understanding paranormal Ethnographic text performances, ceremonies rural tribal peoples, existence beings enforces rites, (Sabar, reports, come urban, cosmopolitan cities, dwellers. complex combination users sectors society means complex. highlight extortion primates large forward-facing limbs tails, attributed properties, help extensive association explain similar sloths, 1996). healing properties improving eyesight curing Sinhalese Tamils medicines, wearing bones plucked hairs talismans eye’ luck), leprosy, Still, 1930). tears, supposedly enable deity bestow riches observer ongoing India. Asia's (Nycticebus widely disease, ailments (Starr closely African (Perodicticus, Arctocebus) cures weakness, coughs pregnancy (Svensson Use rural, dwellers rely it, stating remedies symptoms, disease. Kanagavel (2016) pointed challenge changing communities' preferences products. purchasers programmes uncovered Perhaps damaging caged good luck charm teller, before (Tamil Kerala) Other ailments, get closer god generally require death animal. Similar involving burying house; jewellery keyrings; revering guardians afterlife (Nijman 2014; Nekaris, too witchcraft, heart protect situations m